Templar Knights

The Templar Knights


Knights Templars defended Jerusalem during the Crusades. They financed kings and countries. Yet a king and members of their own brotherhood destroyed these warrior monks.In 1118 a French vassal named Hugh de Payen established an order of monks whose purpose was protecting travelling pilgrims on their way to the Holy Land. Once these men received official recognition from the Pope in 1128, membership within the Order sky-rocketed. Men from leading families from all over Europe joined. They swore poverty, humility and obedience, and called themselves “Soldiers of Christ”.

Their goals grew rapidly from their humble beginnings. They trained and became experts in the art of war and soon became known as the Order of the Knights Templars. They built castles and defensive posts all over Europe and the Holy Land and became a significant and disciplined fighting force in three crusades. They owned estates in many countries throughout the then civilized world. They manned a fleet of the sleekest and swiftest war galleys of the day. Majorca was the seat of the Templars' naval power, the strategic location giving them control over much of the Mediterranean. Within a few decades the Order had interests in all commercial activities within the continent of Europe.

The Templars developed a coded communication system and used it to share new knowledge and technological discoveries. They financed and implemented the latest architectural advances and used them in construction of their castles, military strongholds and cathedrals.

The Knights Templars proved themselves very adept financiers, not only making loans to merchants and property owners, but kings as well. They also invented the first credit or “chit” system.

But as their power and wealth grew the Knights became more arrogant. Once they were defeated by Saladin’s forces at Acre, the Order retreated to Cyprus. With no wars forthcoming the Templars decided to establish a kingdom of their own. France was their first choice.

King Philippe IV proposed to destroy the powerful knights before they established a stronghold in his country. His reasoning? He was heavily in debt to the Templar bankers. He’d also been refused application into the Order while a young man.

The Order’s secretive and “cult-like” leanings only aided Philippe in initiating and securing the Templars downfall. He approached certain knights who’d been expelled from the Order and bribed or blackmailed them to charge their brothers with heresy. Some of the accusations levelled against the Order included worshipping the “Baphomet”, an idol, performing obscene initiation rights, and maintaining a secret affiliation with the infidel “Assassin” cult.

In the year 1307, on Friday the 13th, the Grand Master of the Order of the Knights Templars, Jacques de Molay, and a large number of his senior knights, were arrested. Thousands of other Templars throughout France were also arrested the same day. Over the course of several years de Molay and his knights were tortured. Finally on March 14, 1314, he and Geoffroi de Charney, Preceptor of Normandy, were burned at the stake. Before de Molay perished, he prophesied the death of Philippe and the current Pope, Benedict XI. Both met their end within a year of the Templars gruesome torture.

Oddly enough, when Philippe’s forces raided the Templar treasury to reap the “spoils of war”, they found it empty. The vast Templar wealth had vanished, along with most of their fleet.

What happened to the ships, the Templar Treasure, and the knights who’d evaded capture? Some, it’s been said, fled to Scotland, where Robert the Bruce put the money and the fugitive warriors to good use fighting Edward I’s suppression. Other Templars scattered across Europe, founding bands of warrior mercenaries. Evidence suggests that others sailed with the Venetians and explored the North Atlantic coast. There are even stories that much of Templar’s great treasure has yet to be found.

In later years the Jesuits and Scots Guard adopted some of the Templar principles. In this century, connections to the Order’s beliefs and ideologies are linked to the Nazi party and the rise of Aryanism.

From a small band of less than a dozen to a vast brotherhood of elite fighting men, builders and financiers, these warrior monks remain the stuff of romantic and mystical legend.

John Wilkes Booth

John Wilkes Booth


Perhaps most famous for shooting President Lincoln, John Wilkes Booth was a star in his own right even before the tragedy. Who was John Wilkes Booth?
The name John Wilkes Booth is associated most notoriously with the heinous crime of assassinating Abraham Lincoln. However, John had a very successful early life that is often overlooked and forgotten.

John Wilkes Booth was born May 10, 1838 in a log house near Bel Air, Maryland. Like his elder brother and father, J. Wilkes Booth (as friends knew him) led a prominent life as an actor long before he was known as the man who shot the President.

The Booth family name was strongly identified with American Theater in the nineteenth century. John's father, Junius, came to the U.S. from England in 1821 and left a legacy on the American stage, which would be carried years later by his sons Edwin, John Wilkes and Junius Brutus, Jr.

John began his own career in 1855, performing at the Charles Street Theater in Baltimore. Critics loved his dramatic performances and gushed over his physical beauty. Known for his climactic pauses and intense eyes, John began working regularly in stock theater in 1857. He studied his craft intently, determined to make a name for himself and lose his reputation as being "Junius' son." But John was riddled with self-doubt and criticized his own performances. Afraid he would never achieve the notoriety of his brother or father, John set out to do something different.

John left the theater in 1859, enlisting with the Richmond Grays. His sole intention in joining the military, according to historians, was to witness the hanging of the fiery abolitionist John Brown in Virginia. Once that was done, Booth left for Richmond, where he was immediately discharged.

Tired of his mediocre success in the theater and uninterested in the military, John headed for Pennsylvania in 1864 to concentrate on making a living. Booth, along with several acting friends, invested in oil and formed the "Dramatic Oil Company." Financial success eluded John as well though, and he quickly gave up his dream, turning the company over to his brother, Junius.

Booth traveled to Montreal, and conducted a series of meetings with men associated with the Confederacy. It was here that Booth would begin planning an operation to kidnap President Lincoln. Hoping to force the federal government to return Confederate prisoners of war who were being held in Union prisons, John and his coconspirators made lavish plans to kill government officials. After nearly five months of preparation, Booth moved full force ahead to capture the President on March 17, 1865. A change in plans botched Booth's plan, however. Instead of visiting a hospital outside of Washing where Booth and his friends were waiting, the President, instead, attended a luncheon at the National Hotel, where he often stayed while in Washington. Booth and his men regrouped and started over.

One month later, on April 14, 1865, J. Wilkes Booth snuck into the President's box seat at Ford's Theater in Washington, DC and shot him in the head. Booth immediately jumped to the stage, breaking his leg and escaping by horseback. Twelve days later, a search party cornered Booth in a burning barn near Bowling Green, VA. John Wilkes Booth was shot and killed April 26, 1865.

Le Ann Rimes

Le Ann Rimes


Name: Margaret LeAnn Rimes
Birthdate; August 28,1982
Birthplace: Jackson Miss. moved to
Garland Texas at age 6
Hair: Blonde
Eyes: Blue
Height: 5ft 6 in

LeAnn Rimes is the daughter of Wilbur and Balinda Rimes , whom divorced in 1997. Wilbur Rimes is also LeAnns producer, and co manager with Lyle Walker. LeAnn now lives in Sherman Oaks California with her mother, and she has a pet pomeranian named Raven.Her hobbies include shopping, kick-boxing, softball, inline skating, ace car driving, bowling, tennis, weight training, and swimming. Her favorite movies are The Body Guard, and The Shawshank Redemption, and her favorite TV shows are Beverly Hills 90210, and Friends.

Miss Rimes favorite colors are red, black, blue, and white, and her favorite foods are steak, baked potatoes, and chicken fettucine.Her favorite charities include St Jude Childrens Hospital, T.J Martell Foundation, D.A.R.E. , Operation Smile, and Dont Mess With Texas Environmental Campaign.

LeAnn has many favorite actors, actresses, and artists including Pop stars, and those include Kevin Costner, Whoopi Goldberg, Sandra Bullock, Shirley Maclaine, Audrey Hepburn, Bette Midler,Tim McGraw, Bryan White and Hal Ketchum, Brandy, Alanis Morrisette, Cline Dion, and Whitney Houston. Her musical influences are Reba Mcintire, Judy Garland, Patsy Cline, Wynonna , and Barbara Streisand.

LeAnn has acted as Tiny Tim in a Dallas production of A Christmas Carol , acted in an ABC TV movie based on Holiday In Your Heart, and played a runaway in the daytime soap opera Days of Our Lives.

When LeAnn was 8 she was the winner two weeks in a row on Star Search singing “Dont Worry About Me”. At the age of nine a Dallas disc jockey Bill Mack heard Le Ann singing the National Anthem at a sporting event and he knew he had found a voice for the song he had written 40 years prior to Patsy Cline called Blue.

Miss Rimes Co wrote the Christma story Holiday in Your Heart with Tom Carter, recorded “ Cattle Call” with Eddy Arnold, and recorded the pop smash hit “ Written in The Stars” with Elton John. She appeared in the VH1 special Divas Live 99 with Whitney Houston, Cher, Tina Turner, Brandy, Faith Hill, Elton John, and Mary J Blige.

LeAnns version of “ How do I Live” set a record when it spent 69 consecutive weeks on billboards pop charts for 32 weeks in the top 10. Longer than any song in history, and she was the first country artist to sell more than 3 million copies of a single.

The song “ You Light Up My Life” Inspirational songs album debuted at No.1 on the country, pop, and christian charts in 1997 and no other album has ever accomplished this feat.

Le Anns awards include CMA, ACM, AMA, and Grammys. In 1996 at the ACM she won Top new female vocalist, Single record of the year for “ Blue”, and Song of the year for “Blue”. At Grammys she won Best Female country vocal performance, and Best new Artist (Overall)She was the first country artist to ever win Best new Artist award. In 1997 at the CMA she won the Horizon award, and she was the youngest person ever to win this CMA award. At the AMA she won Favorite new Artist- Country. Her Platinum Albums include “ Blue” 1996 6 million sold, “ You Light Up My Life” 1997 sold 4 million, “Unchained Melody” - the early years 1997 sold 2 million, “ Sittin On Top Of The World” 1998 sold 1 million. Le Anns billbord top 10 singles are Blue #1 in 1996, One Way Ticket #1 in 1996, Unchained Melody #3 in 1997, The Light in Your Eyes #5 1997, On The Side Of Angels #4 in 1998, Commitment #4 in 1998, Nothing New Under The Moon #10 in 1998

Katie Holmes

Katie Holmes


A biography on Katie Holmes, the incredibly talented actress who plays "Joey Potter" on "Dawson's Creek."
Actress “Katie Holmes” was born as Kate Noelle Holmes on December 18, 1978, in Toledo, Ohio. Katie’s father, Marty, is a lawyer, and her mother, Kathleen, is a homemaker. She is the youngest of five children, with three older sisters and one older brother. Though her family is incredibly athletic, Katie admits that she has always been horrible at sports.

Katie got her start in acting on the stage, mostly in plays at her all girls Catholic high school in Toledo, “Notre Dame Academy.” She never thought she had a real shot at acting, living in the Midwest, until attending a modeling convention in New York. While she was there, a talent agent convinced her to travel to Los Angeles for another convention. While in LA, Katie auditioned for several casting directors, and won her first role in the independent film, “The Ice Storm,” a coming of age movie that took place in the sexual revolution of the 1970’s and starred Christina Ricci and Elijah Wood.

Katie, who currently stars as “Joey Potter” in the hit television series, “Dawson’s Creek,” initially passed up the audition in order to be in her high school production of “Damn Yankees,” which she thought to be more important. Luckily the casting directors ended up letting her reschedule, and she was chosen for the role. Kevin Williamson, who is the writer for the series, was so impressed with her that he even cast her as “Leigh Ann Prescott” in his movie, “Teaching Mrs. Tingle,” alongside Barry Watson of “7th Heaven.” Katie was even offered the role of “Buffy,” who is played by Sarah Michelle Gellar, in the television series “Buffy the Vampire Slayer.”

Besides “The Ice Storm” and “Teaching Mrs. Tingle,” Katie has been in the movies “Go!,” “Disturbing Behavior” and “Wonder Boys.” She even had a cameo in “Muppets From Space.” Awards that Katie has won include being named one of “Seventeen” magazine's “Ten Most Beautiful People,” and making EW’s 1998 “It” list.

Katie currently resides in Wilmington, North Carolina while filming her television series, “Dawson’s Creek.” When she is not working, she attends Colombia University in New York.

Deborah Sampson

Deborah Sampson


Deborah Sampson was the first known American woman to impersonate a man to join the army and take place in combat. She served bravely as a soldier in the American Revolutionary War.
Deborah Sampson, the first known American woman to impersonate a man to join the army and take part in combat, was born in Plympton, Massachusetts, on December 17, 1760.

Deborah’s youth was spent in poverty. Her father abandoned the family and went off to sea in search of adventure, where he drowned in a shipwreck. Her mother was ill and unable to support her five children, so she sent them to live with various relatives and neighbors. Deborah went to live with her mother’s cousin, a Miss Fuller, where she learned to read and was happy for three years. But Miss Fuller died suddenly, and Deborah had no place to live. For awhile she ended up living with an eighty year old woman, where she had to feed the woman, carry in the wood to make a fire, do the cooking and washing, until the Minister of Middleborough got eight year old Deborah another position.

For the next ten years, Deborah Sampson became a servant in the household of Jeremiah Thomas of Middleborough. Here, she had her own little room above the kitchen, and she had plenty of work to do. She took care of three lively boys, swept, cleaned, cooked, carried in wood, and brought in the water. She was not sent to school like the three boys of the family, so she would read the boys' school books at night, until her candle flickered out.

Hard labor developed Deborah’s physical strength, and later in the winter, when there wasn’t much farm work to do, she was allowed to attend school. She learned enough so that when her servitude ended in 1779, she was hired as a teacher in a Middleborough public school.

At the start of the Revolutionary War in 1776, Deborah Sampson was sixteen. George Washington had been chosen to lead the American army. The Declaration of Independence was being signed and approved. Men and boys from all across the area were joining the continental army. Deborah, longing for a life of her own and seeing some of the world before being married, thought about joining the army, too. She thought about it a lot.

Finally, she bought herself men’s clothes, put her hair in a pony tail, deepened her voice, and bound her breasts tightly to look like a male. Then on May 20, 1782, when she was twenty-one, Deborah Sampson enlisted in the Continental army claiming she was a fifteen year old boy and using her brother's name. Because she was 5 foot 7 inches in height, tall for a woman at that time, she did pass as a boy.

Her first test as a soldier came when she had to march to West Point in New York with fifty men. The march took almost two weeks. At West Point, she was given a uniform, gun, and a heavy knapsack. She liked her new uniform, especially the blue coat with the white buttons. She had to go on long marches, and often had to go without food for days, but she never complained, and was well liked by the other soldiers, even though they often teased her about her beardless features.

Back home, rumors circulated about her activities and she was excommunicated from the First Baptist Church of Middleborough, Massachusetts, because she was “dressing in man’s clothes and enlisting as a Soldier in the Army.” However, at the time of her excommunication, her regiment had already left Massachusetts, and her secret was not disclosed.

Deborah Sampson was wounded in the leg in a battle near Tarrytown. She tended her wounds so that she would not be discovered. Her leg never healed properly. Two weeks after she had been shot, she was called to march again. Richard Snow, another sick soldier, who marched beside Deborah, stumbled and fell to the ground one day. Deborah took Richard to a nearby farmhouse, where a man named Van Tassel let them stay in his cold attic, even though he was a Tory. There she tended to her leg and cared for Richard Snow as best as she could. Her own leg improved, but two weeks later, Richard Snow died.

General Patterson had heard about this brave, young soldier named Robert Shurtleff, and chose her to be his personal orderly. She was given a good horse, fine equipment, and a feather bed, and in June sent to Philadelphia on an important mission. However, this was the time a terrible fever was spreading around Philadelphia, and Deborah caught it. Upon landing it the hospital, they discovered she was a female. Deborah Sampson was honorably discharged from the army on October 25, 1783.

Deborah Sampson returned home, married a farmer named Benjamin Gannett, and had three children. She also taught at a nearby school. Nine years after her discharge, she was awarded a pension from the state of Massachusetts in the amount of 34 pounds in a lump sum payment. However, after Paul Revere sent a letter to Congress on her behalf in 1804, she began receiving a US pension in the amount of four dollars per month.

In 1802 she began to lecture on her experiences in the military, dressed in military uniform, which she had always loved. So she was also believed to have been the first woman to lecture professionally in the United States.

Deborah Sampson Gannett died April 29, 1827, at age sixty-six. Her children were awarded compensation by a special act of Congress “for the relief of the heirs of Deborah Gannett, a soldier of the Revolution, deceased.”

Deborah Sampson was an early American hero.

Jamaica Kincaid

Jamaica Kincaid


A breif biography of Jamaica Kincaid, Caribean-American author.
Jamaica Kincaid, Caribbean-American author, was born Elaine Potter Richardson on the small island of Antigua. She was born the eldest of four children into tropical poverty, the daughter of a carpenter and a housekeeper. When she was a child, Antigua was under British rule, and the only formal education available was in government schools. With a thirst for knowledge and escape, she stole books and read them in secret under the house.

Richardson left Antigua at the age of 16 to work as a babysitter for a family in Scarsdale, New York. While there she earned her high school diploma and took night classes at Westchester Community College. She later worked as an au pair on the Upper East Side of Manhattan. After working as an au pair for three years she briefly studied photography at the New School and took a secretarial position at Magnum Photos. Winning a full scholarship to Franconia College, she left New York for New Hampshire. However, she returned to New York after a year, supporting herself as a receptionist at an ad agency. She soon began writing interviews for a teen magazine and became Jamaica Kincaid in part to maintain anonymity in her writing. Her first piece of fiction, "Girl" was a liturgy of commands and criticisms in her mother's voice directed to her young daughter.

It was published in THE NEW YORKER magazine. She had pieces published in THE VILLAGE VOICE and INGENUE which the editor of THE NEW YORKER, William Shawn, noticed. He made her a staff writer in 1976. She published a collection of her short fiction in 1983 and has since published five novels. Her writings portray family relationships and her homeland, Antigua. One of her novels, MY BROTHER, is an account of her brother's death from AIDS.

Kincaid is married to Allen Shawn, the son of William Shawn, and they have two children, Annie and Harold.


CHRONOLOGY

• 1949 She was born in St. John's Antigua. (May 25)
• 1966 She moved to New York City.
• 1973 She took the name Jamaica Kincaid.
• 1976 She became a staff writer for THE NEW YORKER magazine.
• 1978 She published her first piece of fiction, "Girl," in THE NEW YORKER. (June 26)
• 1983 AT THE BOTTOM OF THE RIVER was published.
• 1984 ANNIE JOHN was published.
• 1988 A SMALL PLACE was published.
• 1990 LUCY was published.
• 1996 THE AUTOBIOGRAPHY OF MY MOTHER was published.
• 1997 MY BROTHER was published.

George Washington

George Washington


George Washington's biography. An account of the not so glamourous road to the presidency taken by the first man elected to the office, George Washington.
Born on February 22, 1732 to Augustine and Mary Ball Washington, George Washington grew up on various tobacco farms and was taught basic schooling by tutors. As an early teen George copied into a notebook “Rules of Civility and Decent Behaviour in Company and Conversation," which includes admonishments such as do not sleep when others are talking and brush your clothes at least once a day. This advice would come in handy as George had very little guidance in his teen years. His father died when George was eleven and his mother had her hands full with his brothers and sisters. George traveled a bit as a young adult and enjoyed staying at his half brother's home, the famous Mt. Vernon.

George was studying to be a surveyor when his brother took ill and so did George. George survived the illness but his brother passed away, so George decided to give up surveying and take his brother's place in the Army. It didn’t take long until Washington’s endurance and bravery as a soldier earned him promotions and recognition.

On January 6, 1759, George married Martha Dandridge Custis, a widow with two small children. Martha had money and owned a good bit of property and for a while they shared some peacetime happiness in Mt. Vernon. Washington prospered and with the help of his family, and the slaves he owned, Mt. Vernon became a famous mansion.

The years of peace were interrupted with the cry of “No Taxation without Representatation” when the British began to attempt to pay debts by taxing colonists on imported items. At age 43, George was nominated by John Adams to command the Continental Army. During the Revolution, George would see lice infested, frozen men existing on nothing but hope awaiting his orders.

Peace time left these brave men coming home penniless and out of work. Some cried out for George to continue to lead them by declaring himself King. Instead of creating a monarchy in the US, George finally returned to his beloved Mt. Vernon. He spent his days having his portraits painted, which brings up the question of the “wooden teeth”.
In many early portraits, Washington is shown with his lips pressed tightly together. It is because he had indeed lost most of his teeth, and in his later years he did have false teeth made from hippopotomas tusks.

Washington watched the birth of the early nation and was fearful and reluctant that he may be elected to the new office of “president” by the electoral college. He was said to have likened the waiting for the election results to a man going to his execution, although he desperately wanted to help his country. During his inaugural speech in New York, the temporary Capital, George Washington’s voice was shaky and soft. The he walked up Broadway. It was in this simple way this farmer ushered in a tradition of the office of United States President.

Florence Harding

Florence Harding


Ohio native Florence Harding, wife of Warren G. Harding, lacked refinement and great beauty, but she skillfully masterminded her husband's career to get him elected president. Florence Mabel Kling was born in Marion, Ohio on August 15, 1860. Her father, Amos Kling, was a successful businessman so her youth was one of wealth and privilege. After graduating from the Cincinnati Conservatory in 1879, she married Henry De Wolfe, who soon deserted her and their infant son. She returned to Marion, left her baby with her parents, and supported herself by giving piano lessons.

Warren G. Harding moved to Marion at age 16 and shortly thereafter bought the Daily Star. It is believed he met his future wife at a local rollerskating rink. A courtship with plain looking, domineering Florence Kling resulted in their marriage in 1891, over the objections of her father. The newlyweds moved into the home where they would remain for the rest of their lives. They had no children together. As he rose through Ohio politics and became a senator, she skillfully guided his career.

But Florence Harding had mixed feelings about her husband's nomination for president in 1920. Both were in poor health; she suffered from kidney problems and he had heart trouble. She was also aware of his extramarital affairs, but they did not become a campaign issue. There were, however, campaign rumors that Harding had Negro blood. Florence Harding proved to be an active campaigner and Harding won by huge popular and electoral majorities.

Many White House evenings were spent with Harding playing poker with close friends and his wife, whom he lovingly referred to as "The Duchess," acting as bartender. (Since Prohibition was in effect, no liquor was served at public functions.)

Harding was a pleasant, trusting person and therefore easy to bilk.In 1922 evidence of graft and bribery among his friends, who now held high offices in the government, surfaced.Both of the Hardings showed signs of great stress, and their physician suggested a change of scenery. Since both of them loved to travel, they took a trip to Alaska and the western United States abroad a special train with medical personnel accompanying them. His health worsened and he died suddenly in San Francisco on August 3, 1923. Upon returning to Washington D.C. she destroyed presidential papers that might embarrass him before attending his funeral. She died in Marion on November 21, 1924 and is buried there in a memorial tomb next to her husband.

Mao Tse Tung

Mao Tse Tung


A Brief history of one of the moste influential leaders of the 20th Century - Mao Tse Tung
Mao Tse Tung (1893 – 1976)

Early Life
Born on the 26th of December 1893 in the Village of Shaoshun in Hunan Province, Mao Tse Tung was to become one of the most influential leaders of the twentieth century. An avid reader from an early age, Mao saw education as his key to the world. Denied a University place he trained as a teacher and would later describe his primary role in life as that of a teacher.

At this time China was going through a time of great political, social and economic upheaval. In 1911 the Manchu-Quing dynasty fell. Sun Yat-sen came to power and tried to improve conditions through land reform. However, this proved to be a failure and by 1916 China was under military rule.

In 1918 Mao moved to Peking (modern day Beijing) where he worked in the University library. It was here that he became involved in Marxism. He believed that China did not lack the will or the power for a revolution but the technique.

Rise to Power
In 1921 the Chinese Communist Party was founded in Shanghai. Mao was one of the thirteen men involved. He returned to Hunan Province to form a local branch of the Party and a Marxist study group of his own. However, the Soviet Union aided Sun Yat-sen’s Kuomitang to build a powerful army and a party along Soviet lines. Sun’s group was to become Mao’s greatest rival for power in China. The Kuomitang went about taking on the warlords and unifying China. The Communist Party, at this time, obeyed Moscow’s edicts and cooperated with the Kuomitang. However, unlike Marxist doctrine, Mao thought the peasants would be the backbone to China’s revolution.

The massacre of thousands of communists by the Kuomitang, now led by Chiang Kai-shek, in 1927 led to open hostilities between the two groups. It proved to be a long and bitter war. 1934 saw Mao become ‘Chairman’ of the Party and leader of their army. The Kuomitang drove them from their sanctuary and thus began the “Long March” – a year long, 6,000 miles journey around China.

The beginning of World War II in the Pacific saw the two warring factions reunite in a tenuous alliance to fight their common enemy, Japan. When Japan lay in ruin and defeat after the dropping of the A – bomb the conflict resumed. While the Kuomitang had a more modern war machine, Mao had the fervour of millions of peasants. Chiang Kai-shek, seeing the fruitlessness of continuing the war, fled to Taiwan.

In Power
Mao found himself in charge of a country that was severely underdeveloped, poverty-stricken and with no concrete plans for the future.

He encountered mixed success with problems of land reform and modernisation. 1956 saw the beginning of the ‘Hundred Flowers and the Hundred Schools’ movement. The Hundred Flowers were taken to be the arts and the Hundred Schools the different philosophies. He believed that this movement could bring many opinions in the communist fold and that this freedom would be used gently and discreetly. However it had the opposite effect. The Party and its Chairman, Mao, were publicly criticised and radical reforms were demanded. Mao’s response was to curtail the movement.

The ensuing years were marked with disputes with the Soviet Union, internal squabbles over economic policy and increasing rivalries among those closest to the Chairman. Despite this considerable gains were made in the agricultural sector and industrial development. People were no longer starving and China was experiencing an industrial revolution. Added to this relations were developed among its Asian neighbours while Europeans treated China cautiously as an equal.

The Cultural Revolution of 1966 to 1969 overthrew the Party hierarchy and threatened the collapse of the revolution. The newly formed Red Guard massed in Peking on August of 1966 chanting the slogan “To rebel is right”. They were urged by Mao to ferret out traces of Western influence. Important leaders were humiliated, paraded wearing dunce caps and placards with derogatory slogans. However, by 1969 the Red Guards were getting out of hand and Mao brought the ‘Revolution’ to a halt.

Mao and the U.S.
Despite failing health Mao met with the President of the United States, Mr. Richard Nixon, in 1972. This was a truly historic occasion considering the previous animosity between the two countries. The famous photographs of Nixon shaking hands with Mao represents one of the watersheds of the twentieth century.

Death
During his last years Mao suffered from pneumonia, congestive heart disease, swelling of the internal organs and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (Lou Gehrig’s Disease). He died in 1976; his embalmed body was placed on public display.

Queen Elizabeth I

Queen Elizabeth I , The Virgin Queen


Elizabeth I was born on September 7, 1533. She was the daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn. Henry, who was notorious for his many wives and ruthless disposal of several by decapitation, had married Anne in the hope she could provide him what he craved: a healthy young male that would one day grow up to be a great King of England. Henry soon lost patience with Anne and brought a charge of incest against her, which the majority of historians believe to be fabricated. At the same time, the pope declared the marriage of the pair null and ruled that Elizabeth was illegitimate. It was not exactly the perfect start in life for the future virgin queen. Anne Boleyn was beheaded at the Tower of London in 1536, three years after Elizabeth’s birth.

Henry, not surprisingly, remarried in his quest for a son. This time he married Jane Seymour, who bore him a son, Edward (later to become Edward VI). However, Jane died soon afterwards. The reigning king had one more marriage left in him, though, to Katherine Parr. During this time, Elizabeth was allowed to return from her exile from court. The king died soon afterwards and because Edward was so young, his uncle was given the title of Lord Protector of England. Elizabeth went away with her mother to live away from court. This didn’t last long, though, as it was alleged that Elizabeth was caught in bed with Katherine’s next husband, Thomas Seymour, so she was forced to leave. Seymour was a rather seedy character who was later arrested and eventually executed for planning to kidnap Edward VI and also to marry the future virgin queen.

The young King Edward was considered to be weak and did not live to see his adult days. As he lay on his deathbed suffering the effects of tuberculosis, those around him began to realize he would not sire the next heir to the throne. This led to a mad scramble for the throne and was a dangerous time for all those who were in line, including Elizabeth. At this time in particular, she was bombarded with offers of marriage, most famously from Thomas Seymour. Shrewdly though, she decided against any form of marriage, strengthening her bargaining position to all potential suitors.

The most likely candidate for the throne was Elizabeth’s older sister, Mary. Mary was a catholic, and inevitably there were others, all Protestants, who were desperately trying to make sure she didn’t become queen. Lady Jane Grey, a niece of Henry VIII, stepped forward. She had some support, and several armies began forming to back her up. Unfortunately for her, she had only been in power for eight days when Mary and Elizabeth, both daughters of Henry VIII, arrived in London to overwhelming support. Lady Jane and her husband were thrown into the Tower of London.

Queen Mary’s marriage to the Prince of Spain made her even more unpopular with the Protestants. They chose to side with Elizabeth, whose mother’s marriage to Henry VIII had initialized the breakaway from Rome. Mary saw that Elizabeth was becoming very popular and thus imprisoned her in the Tower of London. She was released when it was thought that Mary was pregnant. A child never materialized from this phantom pregnancy, though, and in 1558 Mary died, and Elizabeth was crowned Queen of England.

Once more, Queen Elizabeth I was inundated with offers of marriage but never accepted. The true reasons for this will never be fully proven, and there are several theories. Firstly, she may have been affected by the knowledge and childhood memories of her father’s cruelty towards women, including Elizabeth’s mother. Fearful of similar behavior towards herself may have put her off subconsciously. Secondly, romanticists believe it was because she was unable to marry her true love, Robert Dudley, who was already married. Thirdly, and most likely, Queen Elizabeth realized that being single put her in a great bargaining position, both politically and financially. The fact that she remained a virgin queen helped her reign for a long time.

Queen Elizabeth I ruled until her death in 1603. The last forty years of her reign are known as the "Golden Age." During these years, she fended off a challenge to the throne by Mary Queen of Scots and the attack on England by the Spanish Armada.

Learn how one of England's greatest ruler's, Queen Elizabeth I the virgin Queen, came to power, and how she played suitors against one another for political gain. Elizabeth I was born on September 7, 1533. She was the daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn. Henry, notorious for his many wives, and ruthless disposal of several by decapitation, had married Anne in the hope she could provide him what he craved – a healthy young male that would one day grow up to be a great King of England. Henry soon lost patience with Anne, and brought a charge of incest against her, which the majority of historians believe to be fabricated. At the same time the Pope declared the marriage of the pair null, and ruled that Elizabeth was illegitimate. It was not exactly the perfect start in life for the future virgin Queen.

Anne Boleyn was beheaded at the Tower of London in 1536, three years after Elizabeth’s birth.Henry, not surprisingly, remarried, in his quest for a son. This time he married Jane Seymour, who bore him a son, Edward (later to become Edward VI). However, Jane died soon afterwards. The reigning king remarried several times though, first to Katherine Parr. During this time Elizabeth was allowed to return from her exile from court. The king died soon afterwards, and because Edward was so young, his uncle was given the title of Lord Protector of England. Elizabeth went away with her step-mother to live away from court. This didn’t last long though, as it was alleged that Elizabeth was caught in bed with Katherine’s next husband Thomas Seymour, so she was forced to leave. Seymour was rather a seedy character, who was later arrested, and eventually executed, for planning to kidnap Edward VI and also to marry the future virgin Queen.

The young King Edward was considered to be weak and did not live to see his adult days. As he lay on his deathbed suffering the effects of tuberculosis, those around him began to realize he would not sire the next heir to the throne. This led to a mad scramble for the throne, and was a dangerous time for all those who were in line, including Elizabeth. At this time in particular, she was bombarded with offers of marriage, most famously from Thomas Seymour. Shrewdly though, she decided against any form of marriage, strengthening her bargaining position to all potential suitors.

The most likely candidate for the throne was Elizabeth’s older sister, Mary. Mary was a Catholic, and inevitably there were others, all Protestants, who were desperately trying to make sure she didn’t become Queen. Lady Jane Grey, a niece of Henry VIII, stepped forward. She had some support, and several armies began forming to back her up. Unfortunately for her, she had only been in power for eight days when Mary and Elizabeth, both daughters of Henry VIII arrived in London to overwhelming support. Lady Jane and her husband were slung into the Tower.

Queen Mary’s marriage to the Prince of Spain, made her even more unpopular with the Protestants. They chose to side with Elizabeth, who’s mother’s marriage to Henry VIII had initialized the breakaway from Rome. Mary saw that Elizabeth was becoming very popular, and so imprisoned her in the Tower of London. She was released when it was thought that Mary was pregnant. A child never materialized from this phantom pregnancy though, and in 1558 Mary died, and Elizabeth was crowned Queen of England.

Once more, Queen Elizabeth I was inundated with offers of marriage, but never accepted. The true reasons for this will never be fully proved, and there are several theories. Firstly, she may have been affected by the knowledge and childhood memories of her father’s cruelty towards women, including Elizabeth’s mother. Fearful of similar behaviour towards herself may have put her off subconsciously. Secondly, romanticists believe it was because she was unable to marry her true love Robert Dudley, who was already married Thirdly, and most likely, Queen Elizabeth realized that being single put her in a great bargaining position, both politically and financially. The fact that she remained a virgin Queen helped her to reign for so long.

Queen Elizabeth I ruled until her death in 1603. The last forty years of her reign are known as the ‘Golden Age’. During these years she fended off a challenge to the throne by Mary Queen of Scots. Perhaps most famously though in the late 1500’s was the attack on England by the Spanish Armada. On this occasion Sir Francis Drake had to be dragged away from a game of bowls to take on and defeat the Spaniards.

Marilyn Monroe

Marilyn Monroe'S Death: How Did She Die?


Marilyn Monroe's death was felt by all. But just how did she die? And if it was suicide why do these facts not add up? When Marilyn Monroe was found dead in 1962 in her home the world mourned. From starting out as a lesser-known model to ending as a globally infamous film and sex symbol, she was loved and admired by many.

Although the cause of death was soon released as an overdose of barbiturates, suspicion and confusion has ever since surrounded her death. Speculation of foul play and relationships with US presidents continue to haunt her and her memory.

It is true that many facts do not add up on the days before and after her death:

• It is alleged that Marilyn Monroe was having an affair with President John F Kennedy and after repeated attempts to call him and him ignoring her, she threatened to set up a press conference and tell the world of their relationship.
• Marilyn’s housekeeper was said to have called an ambulance for Marilyn earlier that morning. It is alleged that the ambulance was not in fact real and that they returned Marilyn later the same day. This is when the real ambulance arrived and took Marilyn to the hospital where she was pronounced dead on arrival.
• It is also alleged that there was evidence of an injection given to her in her left breast soon before she died.
• The bottle of drugs found next to her would have been a new bottle. Only a few of the pills were missing, this wouldn’t have been enough for her to take an overdose.
• Marilyn apparently made a phone call to a friend just half an hour before she died. If she had taken an overdose there is no way she would have been able to do this.

Many of Marilyn’s fans believe that there was foul play involved, and yet nothing can ever be proved or discredited. But murder or suicide, nothing will change the ease the pain of losing someone so close to the nation’s heart.

Hiram Berdan

Hiram Berdan


Learn about the first of the sharpshooters, Hiram Berdan, and the role of his crack marksmen during the American Civil War. Hiram Berdan was a New York inventor who came to prominence in the time just before the beginning of the American Civil War (1865). At the outbreak of the war, he was recruited as an officer in the Army of the Potomac, part of the Union army of the North. For fifteen years consecutively, prior to the outbreak of war, Hiram Berdan had been recognised as the most accomplished sharpshooter in the country. His inventions were generally geared towards marksmanship or war machines, his most famous being the repeating rifle.

When the war started Berdan was the obvious choice to be the leader of a group of men whose skills were to be honed towards long-range marksmanship. He helped to create the United States Sharpshooters, and assisted recruits in their training. Because of his innovative ideas, the two regiments of sharpshooters were equipped with some of the most advanced weaponry of the time, including telescopic lenses for rifles. The sharpshooters’ role in battle was to take up advanced positions, and engage in brief encounters with the enemy, whilst inflicting as much damage as possible

At the battle of Chancellorsville, in May 1863, Berdan reports that he drove the enemy back through some woods until they sought refuge in an old foundry. The sharpshooters fired continuously and so accurately on the foundry that the enemy soon surrendered. In the following three days Berdan’s regiments took more than six hundred prisoners, and suffered very few losses.

Berdan also led the sharpshooters at the Battle of Gettysburg, a month later. He had been instructed by his commanding officer, Major General Birney, to advance to a position where he could see what the enemy were doing. Berdan and his men advanced, and attempted to pin the enemy down with gunfire. Unfortunately, an area of woodland was acting as excellent cover for the Confederates, and the sharpshooters had to retreat under attack, due to a lack of ammunition. They soon regrouped however, and surprised the enemy, by attacking them from the side. After killing many enemy soldiers, the sharpshooters withdrew. Consequently, the rest of the battle saw them covering for the advancing main army and driving off Confederate skirmishers. Berdan reported to his commanding officer that all his men had shown great bravery.

Hiram Berdan resigned from his post in 1864. It is believed that the resignation was forced from high-powered officers, who believed that no matter how accurate a shot he was, he wasn’t fit for command. Subsequently Berdan busied himself by inventing engines of war.

Christopher Columbus

Christopher Columbus


Christopher Columbus discovered the New World in 1492. This was the year that the Jews of Spain were thrown out of the empire. Is it a coincidence?

Many interesting facts exist about Columbus that would reflect he might have been of Jewish descent.
The connections between the timing of Columbus's voyage and the expulsion of Spanish Jewry are indeed curious. The timing becomes more intriguing when one considers that August 2, 1492 was the day that had been ordained for the last Jews of Spain to depart the country. Columbus actually changed the day of the voyage from August 31st to the 2nd.

Another interesting fact about then day of the voyage (August 2nd) is the date that it occurred on the Jewish Calendar- Ninth of Av. or the Jewish day of mourning for the destruction of the Jerusalem Temples. It’s ironic that Columbus chose to move the departure to this important day.

Aside from the date of travel many important tidbits hint that Columbus might very well have been Jewish. His Spanish name of Colon was a standard Jewish name of Geneva and not the typical Spanish equivalent of the Italian word Columbus.

Interestingly, throughout his writings and discovery he seems to bring up many activities from the Old Testament as well as a keen knowledge of the geography of the Holy Land. In fact, in one of his writings he calculates the date from the destruction of the "Second Temple” counting from the traditional (and erroneous) Jewish date of 68 CE, rather than the generally held 70.

His crew had an interesting Jewish flavor as his translator and second in command were known Morranaos (undercover Jews). Columbus was known to frequent the company of Jews and former Jews, among who were some noted astronomers and navigators.

While most of this evidence is circumstantial the controversy about Columbus’s true religion exists. Cecil Roth editor of Encyclopedia Judaica, writes that no one can really be sure of Columbus’s religion. Interestingly he does not precede his article on Columbus with the special sign that normally indicates articles about non-Jews. The world might never know.

Apache History

Apache History


Learn about the enigmatic Apache history. They were the fiercest of all indian tribes. What happened to the fearsome Apache? And what is the truth about their famed leader Geronimo?
Geronimo – the word has become an accepted part of the English language. Unfortunately, not much else remains of the once proud, defiant people who were led by the aging warrior who bore that name. The Apache had a long and distinguished history already behind them when it was decided by European officialdom that they were to be banished from their homelands and either converted to Christian farmers or exterminated.

The name Apache comes from a Zuni word which means ‘enemy’. They are divided into various tribal subgroups such as the western Apache, which include Northern and Southern Tonto, Mimbreno, and Coyote. The Eastern Apache are the Chiricahua, Mescalero, Jicirilla, Lipan, and Kiowa Apache. It is widely accepted that the original Native American tribes came from Asia by way of the Bering Strait. The Apache are believed to have arrived in the Southwest some time between 1000 and 1500 C.E. The language of the Apache has been linked by linguists to that of the Athapaskan speaking peoples of Alaska and Canada.

It didn’t take long for a conflict to develop between the Apache and their Mexican neighbours. In fact, the Mexican Government actually offered bounties for Apache scalps. In 1835, a warrior's scalp would bring 100 pesos, and by 1837 Mexican officialdom was offering 50 pesos for a woman’s scalp and 25 pesos for that of a child.

About the year 1850, Mexican soldiers attacked and killed 25 women and children who were peacably camped just north of the Mexican border. Among those massacred were the wife, mother and three young children of a rising warrior by the name of Goyathlay. From that moment on Goyathlay was motivated by a burning desire for vengeance. Shortly thereafter, he led an attack on a group of soldiers who, taken by surprise, cried out in fear to Saint Jerome. Thereafter this fear inspiring warrior was known to the outside world as Geronimo.

By the 1850’s, war with the United States Army was just as much an issue as that with Mexico. Hunters and miners who ventured into Apache territory were not averse to hunting Indian. The reprisals would be swift and violent. The answer to these clashes was seen by the United States Government as quite simple – herd the Apache into reservations where they would be safely away from civilization. Consequently, reservations were established in 1871-2. Initially the different tribes were separated onto their own reservations. But, in 1876, it was decided that this was a waste of resources and the already bad conditions on the reservation were exacerbated when several of them were abandoned and all of the Apaches were concentrated on one reservation.

In 1885, the now aged Geronimo led a small band of followers in an outbreak from the reservation at San Carlos. It took the United States Army nearly 5,000 soldiers, 400 Apache scouts and over a million dollars to capture the 15 warriors, 12 women and 6 children who followed the Tiger of the Plains into the wilderness of Mexico. After recapture they were shipped eastward to Florida in shackles. Geronimo died, old and defeated, in 1909.

Today the Apache face battles of another kind – the lure of drugs and alcohol, the demoralising effects of unemployment, the vices of gambling and immorality – all of these have made inroads into the Apache lifestyle to detrimental effect.

Left alone, the Apache would still be a proud, athletic, culturally rich people. As it is, they are yet another indictment to the legacy of Europoean Colonial plunder.

George W. Bush

George W. Bush


George W. Bush was born in New Haven, Connecticut to George Herbert Walker Bush and Barbara Bush. His father was the 41st President of the United States. George W. Bush was born in New Haven, Connecticut to George Herbert Walker Bush and Barbara Bush. His father was the 41st President of the United States. When he was just two years old his family moved to Odessa, Texas. Bush was educated at Yale, receiving his B.A. in history, and he received a Masters in Business Administration from Harvard Business School. Two years after leaving Harvard, he met and married Laura Welch. Together they have twin daughters, Barbara and Jenna.

Bush returned to Texas after completing school and started his own oil and gas company. That same year he ran unsuccessfully for Congress. His company eventually merged with Spectrum 7, and Bush became the CEO. A year later he formed a group which purchased the Texas Rangers Baseball team. He remained part owner until he was elected Governor of Texas in 1994. Four years later he became the first Texas governor elected to consecutive four year terms.

In 1999 Bush announced his candidacy for the presidency of the United States. Since then he has broken all campaign records for a presidential campaign, raising $37 million before June 30, 2000. Bush effectively clinched the Republican nomination on Super Tuesday, but the nomination will not be official until the Republican National Convention in August 2000.

CHRONOLOGY

• 1946 He was born in New Haven, Connecticut. (July 6)
• 1948 He moved with his family to Odessa, Texas.
• 1953 His sister, Robin, died of leukemia.
• 1964 He entered Yale University.
• 1968 He received his B.A. in history from Yale.; He entered the Texas Air National Guard.
• 1975 He received his M.A. in business administration from Harvard Business School.
• 1977 He married Laura Welch. (November 5)
• 1978 He started his own oil and gas company.; He campaigned for U.S. Congress but was defeated.
• 1981 His twin daughters, Barbara and Jenna, were born.
• 1983 He became the CEO of Spectrum 7.
• 1984 He (and others) purchased the Texas Rangers Baseball team.
• 1988 He moved to Washington to serve as senior advisor for his father's presidential campaign.
• 1994 He was elected Governor of Texas. (November 8)
• 1998 He was reelected Governor of Texas.
• 1999 He announced his candidacy for the presidency of the United States. (June)

Walt Disney

Walt Disney


On December 15, 1966, just ten days after his 65th birthday, Walt Disney died. He was in St. Joseph's Hospital across the street from the Disney Studio. Walt Disney had been diagnosed with cancer in his left lung and had undergone surgery to remove it just a few weeks prior to his death. The influence of Disney's work can be clearly seen in the worldwide grief and sympathy.

Before he died, Walt Disney had started his plans for Disney World in Orlando, Florida. He had purchased a little over 27,000 acres of land and was keeping his plans quiet. His brother, Roy O. Disney took over and finished the final project Walt Disney has started.

Walt Disney's vision included an amusement park and resort amenities. There would be a man-made lagoon surrounded by themed hotels. He wanted to create a vacation kingdom that included water recreation activities, golf and nightclubs. He died before seeing any of his Orlando dreams come true, but his brother Roy finished it for him.

By 1970, Disney had begun to landscape the World property with different varieties of plants and trees they had grown in their private tree farms.

Millions of earth were dug up from the lagoon and a three-story building was built there. This 3-story building is actually what the Magic Kingdom is today. The top two floors are what guests see and the first floor is an underground system of tunnels. Disney wanted workers and characters to be able to go from one section to another without being seen by the guests.

Disney also had to supply its own wardrobe department to create costumes for workers and props, its own center to store and prepare food for the workers and guests, and the world's largest laundry facility in the world for the costumes and linens the workers and guests used.

Disney began building the Cinderella Castle towards the end of 1969. It took them 18 months to complete it and stood 189 feet high when finished. There is an apartment that was built in the castle's upper floor for the Disney family but it has never been completed or used.

After the park was completed, workers were needed to run it. Over 100,000 applicants were viewed either by interview or mailed applications. Only 1 in 12 applicants were chosen. Each worker hired had to attend Disney University to learn the Disney way of doing things.

On October 1, 1971, Disney World opened with only 10,000 guests arriving. By November, however, Florida experienced the worst traffic jam in history as Interstate 4 was backed up for miles with Disney visitors.

Disney World had cost about $400 million by the time it opened it doors and over 9,000 workers had built it. Roy O. Disney had completed his late brother's dream and on December 20th, two months after Disney World opened, he joined him. Two men that brought joy to millions did not live to truly see their accomplishments.

Vincent Van Gogh

Vincent Van Gogh


Vincent Van Gogh biography: who was this incredible artist that turned dabs of paint into amazing art? Uncover the mistique of the emotions behind his work. Violence and brilliance of the canvases painted by post-impressionist Vincent Van Gogh are a mute reminder of his short and tragic life. Born at Groot-Zundert in the district of North-Brabant in Holland on March 30, 1853, the eldest of six children, Van Gogh's early childhood was normal and uneventful. But, growing up in a bleak region where the plight of the peasant was of greatest importance would have a tremendous impact on Van Gogh's impressions, which would later show up in his work.

Van Gogh's father, a Protestant minister, had hopes that his son would follow in the footsteps of his forebears and become either a clergyman or successful businessman. At an early age an extremely sensitive Van Gogh, who was prone to frequent bouts of depression, gave indications that he would not be well suited for either profession. At the age of 16 Van Gogh was recommended by an uncle for a clerical position at Goupil, an art gallery in The Hague. In 1873 Van Gogh transferred to a branch of Goupil in London. Here he experienced his first tragic love affair when he fell in love with his landlady's daughter. When he returned to Holland for the holidays, his parents found him utterly defeated and depressed.

From 1874 to 1875, Van Gogh developed a deep interest in religion. During this time he transferred to Goupil in Paris and attempted to rekindle his love affair, but to no avail. In 1876 he was discharged from Goupil and immediately took a teaching post at Ramsgate on the south coast of England. During this time his avid study of religion led him to study for the ministry. After 14 months Van Gogh abandoned his studies and later was admitted to a lay evangelical school in Brussels. Soon after he became a missionary and sought out a poor district of the Brinage near the French border, where he preached to local miners. This ended when the poverty of the area clashed with the extreme compassion of this extremely sensitive man. He was dismissed after giving away all his clothes and belongings to those less fortunate than he.

In 1880, Van Gogh ceased to wonder and decided he would be an artist. For years he traveled and sketched, studying the styles of different artists and developing his own, leaning toward dark and gloomy colors. In the latter part if 1855 in Antwerp he experienced rich color effects of paintings done by Rubens, which brightened his art work and learned techniques of using small strokes or dots. It was during this time Van Gogh began using long slender threads which stretched into landscape forms. By 1888, ill and unable to sell his paintings, he left Paris and returned to Arles. This was a period of intense activity for the artist. Eager to establish an artist colony he asked another artist, Paul Gauguin to live with him. Frequent quarrels and violent altercations between the two men led to a final blow when Van Gogh attempted to attack Gauguin with a razor. In a fit of remorse at what he had done, Van Gogh fled to his room and sliced of his ear lobe. Hospitalized in a delirious condition, he recovered but continued to have fits of depression. Finally realizing the seriousness of his illness Van Gogh requested to be transferred to an asylum in Saint-Remy.

In May of 1890, Van Gogh moved to Auvers-sur-Oise near Paris, where he began to work enthusiastically on landscapes. In July, a new attack prompted Van Gogh to obtain a revolver and on July 27, 1890, he walked into a field and shot himself in the chest. Two days later Vincent Van Gogh's tragic life ended. Today, this misfit who lived in a world that could not appreciate his genius until after his death, is known and loved throughout the world for his art work. Hundreds of thousands of visitors have been drawn to the various museums which display his work.

Bill Clinton

Bill Clinton - The Unmentioned Success

Bill Clinton is not seen as a successful president in the area of foreign policy, but his record in military intervention is one of the best in American History.
The American media has taken the stance that Bill Clinton is desparately in search of a defining foreign policy achievement. The question of Clinton's foreign policy success can best be decided by an impartial examination of their results. While there is room for arguement over the historical effect of the Clinton Presidency in a number of areas, Mr. Clinton has been one of the most successful presidents in imposing the general will of American policy goals and interest since the beginning of the Cold War Era.

While the media focus on the Clinton Presidency is generally on the fact of his scandals, and missteps with Congress, there has been little objective evaluation of his foreign policy. The media could suggest with some justification that it was his mishandling of the issues of health care and gun control that led to the first Republican majority in Congress in over 40 years.
There is evidence to indicate that as a party leader and a moral representative Bill Clinton is an absolute failure. While all these judgement could be made by a reasonable person, a close examination of Clinton's foreign policy, especially where military intervention was used paints a different picture. It could easily be argued that Bill Clinton was the most successful President since start of the Cold War.

Examining the geo-political situation when Clinton took office in 1993 can serve to make this point. The United States faced conflict and defiance to its stated goals in Haiti, where a military strongman deposed a democratically elected president who had the support of the US.
A twelve-year struggle in what had been Yugoslavia had degenerated into "ethnic cleansing" with the governments of Europe impotent to act. North Korea seemed on the verge of developing and deploying nuclear missles, while making aggressive jesture toward South Korea. US troops were deployed as part of a United Nations Peacekeeping force in Somalia. At the same time two of the longest standing conflicts; Northern Ireland and the Middle East, seemed to be moving away from what seemed like possible breakthroughs. At the same time Iraq was starting to test the resolve of the US and the UN with its resistance to weapon inspection.

Now seven years later we find that not only have many of these problems been settled, additional attempts to test the will of American foreign policy, such as in Kosovo, have been thwarted through military intervention with a minimum loss of life by US military personnel. Following the diaster in Somalia, Clinton achieve an unequalled string of successful dipomatic and military iniatives. US military interventions in Haiti, Bosnia, Iraq, and Kosovo not only resulted in clear cut victory for stated American policy goals it did it without the loss of life of military personnel in combat.

The goal of any foreign policy is to achieve your policy goals while stopping short of armed conflict. Using this criterion Bill Clinton has still had remarkable success. His landmark negotiation of the Middle East peace accords and his actions in de-escalating violence in Northern Ireland, moderating North Korea only serve to underline his success.

It is in the comparison to the other Post World War II presidents that Clinton's achievement really shine. To be sure he has had the benefit of not having to face a Soviet Union, but in historical terms Clinton measures favorably to: Bush (Clinton has had more interventions with less loss of American life) who left office with the conflicts mentioned earlier unresolved; Reagan whose withdrawl from Lebanon following the loss of over 200 American military personal is still one of the worst diasters since Vietnam; Jimmy Carter and Lyndon Johnson will always be associated with their inability to bring conflicts to a rapid closure favorable to US public opinion.

Bill Clinton has been one of the most successful Presidents in history when it comes to the results of military intervention. At the same time his successful high-profile mediation of disputes makes his argueably one of the most successful Presidents ever as a deal maker. Of the many things that can be said of the Clinton Presidency history could never accurately describe his foreign policy as failed.

Arthur C. Clarke

Arthur C. Clarke


Arthur C. Clarke wrote about orbiting satellites that relayed radio signals in 1945, he lived to see his dream come to actualization. The idea of radio transmission through space was originally put forth in a book by science fiction pioneer Hugo Gensback in 1911. It was however, the work of scientist and science fiction writer Arthur C. Clarke that formed the basis of what is now the modern communication satellite. Mr. Clarke is famous for his contribution to modern fiction with such works as 2001: A Space Odyssey and 2010. It is an earlier work, however, which had a monumental impact on the modern world.

In 1945 Clarke proposed, in a work of fiction, satellites in orbit for radio communications between distant points on earth. Clarke assumed that the relay stations would be manned space stations made from materials flown up by rockets and assembled in space. **While Clarke’s vision of the form the relay stations would take proved to be inaccurate, he was accurate in many of the other things he envisioned.

Among Clarke’s suggestions was that the satellites would be located in orbit fixed above a single point in the sky above the earth. This idea meant that the satellites would act like huge radio towers able to relay messages from the surface to any point of an entire hemisphere of the globe. He also suggested the use of solar power and photoelectric devices to power the broadcast relays. In these points he was accurate to the point of prophecy. Today, the majority of communication satellites operate from geosynchronous orbits and are powered by solar panels.

For his foresight and scientific intuition, the belt in which geosynchronous or geostationary satellites orbit is called the Clarke Belt, and is named after him. This is the location 22,300 miles above the earth’s surface where a majority of today’s communication satellites are located. While not all communication satellites are located in this ring located above the earth’s equator, those which are make up a majority of the active satellites used for communication today. From science fiction to science fact, Arthur Clarke has seen an idea that was nothing more than a dream come to practical reality within his lifetime.

Eleanor Roosevelt

Eleanor Roosevelt


Eleanor Roosevelt biography: wife of President Franklin Roosevelt and niece of President Teddy Roosevelt, developed from an awkward girl into the most influential first lady of the 20th century. Eleanor Roosevelt was the daughter of Anna and Elliott Roosevelt, who was President Teddy Roosevelt's younger brother. She was born in New York City on October 11, 1884. Her mother died when she was eight and her father passed away when she was ten. Her grandmother sent her to boarding school in England, and this turned a shy, awkward girl into a lady with accomplished social graces. She returned to America for her debut and met distant cousin Franklin Roosevelt at a party. They were married in 1903 and during the next eleven years, Eleanor gave birth to six children, one of whom died in infancy.

After serving in the New York State Senate, Franklin Roosevelt became Assistant Secretary of the Navy in 1913. During this time, Eleanor learned what Washington expected of political wives at that time. In 1918 Roosevelt developed pneumonia, and Eleanor, while assisting with his mail, discovered letters revealing an affair between her husband and her personal secretary. Franklin Roosevelt was offered a divorce by his wife, but he realized the effects to their children, his mistress, and his political future would be devasting, so he initiated a reconciliation. While Eleanor continued to help her husband politically, things were never the same after that. She distanced herself from her domineering mother-in-law and began her own agenda. This was the beginning of her devotion to causes benefitting victims of poverty, prejudice, and war.

In 1921 Franklin had been playing with his children at his newly remodeled New York home, Hyde Park. That night he went to bed with a fever; no one knew right away that he had polio. Franklin Roosevelt would never walk again without the aid of heavy leg braces, crutches, or a cane. Because the main means of mass communication was radio, and because the press looked the other way, Americans were not aware of the extent of his illness.

When she became First Lady in 1933, Eleanor Roosevelt understood social conditions and needs better than any of her predecessors. She became the first President's wife to hold press conferences on her own, give lectures and radio broadcasts, and she even wrote a daily syndicated newspaper column, "My Way." Historians later regarded her as the most influential First Lady of the 20th century.

Americans got to know Hyde Park well. Its small office on its terrace became the summer White House. Many dignitaries were entertained at dinners here. In 1939 Roosevelt deeded Hude Park to the nation as a National Historic Site. In 1940 the Frankin D. Roosevelt Library adjacent to the house was dedicated. The Roosevelts began using the new office in the library, and frequently brought items from their home to be included in the library's archives.

President Franklin Roosevelt died on April 12, 1945, after serving as president longer than anyone else. Eleanor returned to a cottage at Hyde Park. At the request of President Truman, she began her service as an American spokesman at the newly formed United Nations. She resigned in 1953 when Eisenhower became president, and traveled the world giving speeches on behalf of the American Association for the United Nations until her health worsened. Eleanor Roosevelt died November 7, 1962, and is buried next to her husband at Hyde Park.

Eleanor Roosevelt was one of the most well-known First Ladies of the United States.
She was born October 11, 1884 in New York City to Elliot and Anna Hall Roosevelt. By 1894 both of Eleanor’s parents had died. In 1899 Eleanor enrolled at Allenswood School in England. By 1902, just one year after her uncle, Theodore Roosevelt became the President of the United States, Eleanor left Allenswood and made her society debut at the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel in New York City. A few months later Eleanor became engaged to Franklin Delano Roosevelt, her fifth cousin once removed. She enrolled in the Junior League of New York where she taught calisthenics and dancing to immigrants. She also joined the Consumers' League and investigated working conditions in the garment districts. On March 17, 1905, Franklin and Eleanor were married. By 1910 they had four children, however one died shortly after birth from influenza.

By 1916 Franklin and Eleanor had five children and by 1918, Eleanor had learned that her husband was having an affair with her personal secretary, Lucy Mercer. From that point on in their relationship changed and they were never as close.

In 1920 Eleanor traveled with Franklin on his campaign trail for the vice presidency; she became a member of the new League of Women Voters. Sadly, in 1921 Franklin was paralyzed from polio. It was in 1925 that Franklin built Val-Kill Estate for Eleanor in Hyde Park and Eleanor created the Val-Kill furniture factory along with two friends. She also purchased the Todhunter School, a girls' seminary in New York, where she taught history and government. In 1928 The Democratic National Committee appointed Eleanor director of Bureau of Women's Activities and her husband was elected governor of New York.

By 1932 Franklin D. Roosevelt (FDR) was elected President of the United States and by 1933 Eleanor had become the first wife of a President to hold all-female press conferences.

During the years that followed, Eleanor assisted with the formation of the National Youth Administration, she coordinated meetings between FDR and NAACP leader Walter White to discuss anti-lynching legislation, she coordinated a meeting with FDR and James Farley, head of the Democratic National Committee, and with Molly Dewson, head of the Women's Division of the DNC, to discuss the role of women in political elections. She also published the syndicated column, "My Day." In 1936 FDR ran for and won re-election. It was in 1939 that Eleanor defied segregation laws and sat between whites and blacks at the Southern Conference for Human Welfare in Birmingham, Alabama. Eleanor was also influential with the Army Nurse Corps in convincing it to open its membership to black women.

On July 17, 1940 Eleanor made another first when she gave an impromptu speech at the Democratic National Convention, which helped FDR win an unprecedented third term in office. In 1943 Eleanor toured the South Pacific to boost the soldiers' morale. In this same year, her husband, Franklin Delano Roosevelt, died while staying in Warm Springs, Georgia.

In 1946 Eleanor was elected as head of the United Nations Human Rights Commission, she drafted the Declaration of Human Rights, she initiated the creation of Americans for Democratic Action, a group which focuses on domestic social reform and resistance against Russia, she spoke on "The Struggles for the Rights of Man" during a meeting of the United Nations General Assembly in Paris and she threatened to give her resignation from the UN if Truman did not recognize the newly formed state of Israel.

As late as 1961, when President Kennedy re-appointed Eleanor to the United Nations, she spearheaded an ad hoc Commission of Inquiry into the Administration of Justice in the Freedom Struggle and she monitored the efforts and progress of the fight for civil rights in the United States.

It was in that year that Eleanor Roosevelt died of tuberculosis at the age of seventy-eight.

Galileo

Galileo Biography: The Man Behind The Lessons


Galileo Galilei brought forth support for the fact the Earth was not the center of the Universe. He challenged the view of his time, therefore he was ridiculed and never recieved the fame he deserved.

Last night as the darkness fell, I looked into the night sky at the entire universe beyond our own borders. The twinkling stars appeared very inviting to a simple glance. As the space probes return to Earth with images of galaxies beyond our own, I wondered what the early pioneers in the space exploration drive would have thought. Galileo, Copernicus, and others were all influential in the drive to explore the heavens.

The light of one’s passion may continuously flicker and be dimmed to near darkness, yet it will never totally cease to shine. Every person has a passion for something (or someone) that drives him to explore new things and find new meanings to his life. As life goes on, our passions change. Galileo had a passion for studying the movement of objects (Physics) and the stars in the heavens (Astronomy). During his lifetime, he was ridiculed, his ideas were silenced, and he was forced to follow the mindset of the day. His passion for physics and astronomy never died, and it still exists in a select few individuals, allowing Galileo’s ideas to shine.

Galileo Galilei, known to the world as merely Galileo, was born in Pisa, Italy on February 18th, 1564. Before his death, on January 8th, 1642, he carved a path in which later pioneers of the sciences would follow. (Galileo, 1) Galileo, a very gifted and intelligent man, was born into a family of wealth and prestige. Galileo’s father was a musician, and he pushed Galileo into the field of medicine. Galileo entered the University of Pisa in 1581, pursuing the fields of medicine and philosophy. (Satillana, 2) However, Galileo’s affinity to the laws of Nature was not easily silenced and his studies were shifted to the field of mathematics. In 1581, at the tender age of 19, Galileo discovers the “isochronous property of the pendulum.” (Grun, 257) This was a factor in Galileo’s discovery of oscillation in the coming years. In 1589, Galileo’s intelligence and determination earned him a mathematics professorship at the University of Pisa. In 1592, he was nominated to the chair of mathematics at the University of Padua. In 1610, he was appointed philosopher and mathematician to the Grand Duke of Tuscany. (Galilei, 1) This position enabled Galileo to perform new experiments, which lead to more astounding discoveries.

The controversy around his ideas in the field of astronomy made Galileo famous, however his advancements in physics were also amazing. Galileo performed numerous experiments related to the movement of objects and the force required to shift an object out of the resting state. He rejected the idea of Aristotle and discovered that weight played a key part in how quickly an object would fall. He contributed much advancement to the field of physics and led the way for many others to follow. Although Newton, Kepler, and others provided most of the advancements, Galileo’s presence in this field cannot be overlooked.

Galileo’s presence was most noticeable in the field of astronomy. The stars in the sky above fascinated him and with the development of the telescope in 1600, Galileo was able to “explore” the heavens. In 1608, Galileo constructed a new telescope, with a magnification of 20 (some source say 30) times the magnification. With the new telescope in hand, Galileo looked to the looked to the stars. (Galilei, 1) This lead to various discoveries that shook the values held at his time. In his book, The Starry Messenger, Galileo disclosed the moon was not perfectly round, instead it was filled with numerous mountain and craters just like the surface of the earth, and that the region around the Earth (now called the Milky Way galaxy) is composed of stars. Later books, written on the satellites of Jupiter, the spots on the Sun, and theories on the earth’s movements, were widely ridiculed and denounced by the church.

Galileo was vocal in his support for the Copernican theory of planetary rotation. Copernicus believed the Earth revolved around the sun, instead of the opposing view held by the church. After noticing Mercury and Venus remained whole bodies and were not subject to the phases he saw in the moon, he concluded the moon revolved around the Earth and the three planets revolved around the sun. This was not the accepted view of his time. The world believed the Earth was the center of the universe and the planets, stars and sun revolved around it. The idea of the Earth revolving around the sun was seen as preposterous and Galileo was summoned to Rome to appear in a trail of heresy. The reason for the summons was his refusal to obey a previous order to never discuss Copernicanism. In the Crime of Galileo, Giorgio de Santillana presents another theory behind the summons. Santillana proposes the theory that the Church conspired against Galileo, and was determined to silence him rather than risk a mass loss of biblical faith. Galileo was originally sentenced to life imprisonment in 1633, but the punishment was promptly reduced to house arrest. Galileo’s books were burned and his sentence was read aloud in universities, in order to prevent anyone from following his path.

We are all a "nation of sheep" and it takes a strong person to break from the "flock". If we let other people’s opinions rule our lives; we will have nothing to offer the world. Galileo broke away from the flock and was ridiculed for sharing his opinion during a closed minded era in our history. If he had chosen to remain quiet, the World would have lost an immeasurable amount of insight and knowledge. I salute Galileo for perseverance and determination that he displayed and his willingness to share to his ideas even in the face of opposition. A single drop of water has the potential to cause a great flood, just as a single idea has the potential to cause a great revolution in thought. Galileo provided the idea and others followed in his path, which caused a revolution in the philosophical mindset of the world. In conclusion, I propose to be a thinker like Galileo and follow my theories to my death, but ensure that no one steals my ability to think for myself.

Franklin D. Roosevelt

Franklin D. Roosevelt


An examination of why some historians love Franklin D. Roosevelt while some hate him. Articles examines the New Deal and views toward its policies.
Postmen in the 1930’s knew where to deliver letters addressed, “To the Greatest Man in the World” and “God’s Gift to the World” and “My Friend in Washington D.C.” They went to the same place as letters addressed to “Benedict Arnold the 2nd” and “Franklin the Terrible” – to the desk of President Franklin Roosevelt.

It seems that people either loved FDR or hated him. Was Roosevelt, who has been the most loved and hated of presidents, and the one of the most significant figures in modern United States history, a hero or a villain? A Savior or a Caesar?

Some scholars feel that the nation would have been better off had FDR never been elected, or, once elected, never reelected. Others feel that the beloved American capitalist system, and thus the American way of life, would have collapsed without him. While one critic compares Roosevelt with a color blind train engineer who ought to have been fired from his job while another one reveres him as a family friend who might easily have stopped by for dinner before one of his fireside chats.

Whatever opinion people had, it usually was strong. FDR put a fervor or spirit or pride into the nation’s hearts and minds about their government, about their New Deal, about their President. He made the nation aware, and he made them care.

It is important to realize that Franklin Roosevelt was the New Deal. The New Deal policies represent Roosevelt’s career and his achievements and by these policies he was judged. If one does not examine the method by which Roosevelt did things, it is almost impossible to see the spark behind his accomplishments. “In the method was the genius; in the genius was the policy,” says one British historian. The way in which New Deal policies are judged coincides with the way in which Roosevelt was judged. Opinions of the two seem the same.

Critiques of Roosevelt do not necessarily fall along party lines, though this consideration is important. Not all Democrats loved Roosevelt, not all Republicans hated him. The same thing is true of economic class distinctions. Not all of the poor loved the New Deal, not all of the rich considered him a “traitor to his class.” FDR, during his term, seemed to turn the nation from a bipartisan democracy of Republicans and Democrats to one of Roosevelt-lovers and Roosevelt-haters. Roosevelt strove to be a “President for all of the people.”

Generally the people who praise Roosevelt do so because he did what had to be done. There are two main reasons for this love and admiration of Roosevelt. The first reason is that he saved the American way of life. In a time when the capitalist economy seemed reday to collapse, Roosevelt was daring enough to intervene. His policies were practical measures – not meant to achieve humanitarian goals but to restore economic order. And it was successful to this end.

The second reason that Roosevelt was so loved is that he saved the nation’s morale. As the nation was ready to consider economic depression a new way of life, he instilled a sense of security and confidence into Americans. As Eleanor Roosevelt pointed out, the sense of pride which FDR created for Americans was the driving force behind their victory in World War II. The Roosevelt-lovers loved him because his “voice of hope” sounded through the economic evils and brought security to their lives.

Those who hated Roosevelt fall into two separate categories as well: conservatives who thought he did too much and New Leftists who thought he did too little. The first group saw his “lust for power” as the driving force behind all that he did as he plotted to centralize power into the executive branch and, therefore, to himself. The New Leftists criticize Roosevelt for having in his grasp the power to achieve great things and only actually achieving insignificant ones.

It is odd that the same policies, the same man, can be interpreted in such extremely contradictory ways – but so it is. The argument about Roosevelt seems to go in three main directions: those who might say, “What a Deal!”; those who would question, “Whose Deal and Why Deal At All?”; and those who would ask, “What Deal? Was Franklin Roosevelt America’s savior, or was he on his way to becoming a dictatorial Caesar?

Hillary Rodham Clinton

Hillary Rodham Clinton


Perhaps the most mutidimensional first lady in history, Hillary Rodham Clinton has blazed a trail for unashamedly strong women in the White House. Perhaps the most multidimensional first lady in history, Hillary Rodham Clinton has blazed a trail for unashamedly strong women in the White House. Her many roles, in addition to being the wife of the 42nd President of the United States, include being a highly successful lawyer, a mother, an advocate for children, an author, and most recently a politician in her own right.

She has been both hailed and highly criticized by feminists and conservatives alike. She and her husband have been surrounded by controversy for his entire tenure in the White House, and she remained firm in her support of him during the impeachment trials in 1998. Recently, Ms. Clinton has taken the spotlight in her run for the New York state senate bid.

CHRONOLOGY

• 1947 She was born Hillary Diane Rodham in Chicago, Illinois.
• 1969 She earned her bachelor's degree form Wellesley College.
• 1973 She became a staff attorney for the Children's Defense Fund.
• 1974 She worked on a special U.S. House panel to investigate the possible impeachment of Richard Nixon.; She moved to Arkansas.
• 1975 She married Bill Clinton.
• 1977 She founded Arkansas Advocates for Children and Families.; She joined the Rose Law Firm.
• 1978 Her husband, Bill Clinton, became governor of Arkansas.; She became chairperson of the Rural Health Advisory Committee.
• 1980 Her daughter, Chelsea, was born.
• 1984 She was named Arkansas Woman of the Year.
• 1993 Her husband, Bill Clinton, was inaugurated as the 42nd U.S. President.; She was chosen by her husband to head a special commission on health care reform.; An investigation began concerning the Clintons' investment in the Whitewater Development Corporation.
• 1995 She attended the United Nations Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing, China.; She began writing a weekly newspaper column entitled "Talking It Over."
• 1996 She was called to testify before a grand jury investigating the Whitewater Affair.; IT TAKES A VILLAGE was published.
• 1997 She and her husband hosted the White House Conference on Early Childhood Development and Learning and the White House Conference on Child Care.
• 1998 Her husband, Bill Clinton, was impeached, but he was acquitted.
• 1999 She announced her candidacy for the New York state Senate seat.

J.K. Rowling

J.K. Rowling Biography


Joanne Kathleen Rowling is the creator of the magical world of Harry Potter, a series of immensly popular children’s novels.
Joanne Kathleen Rowling is the creator of the magical, mystical world of Harry Potter, a series of children’s novels. She was born in Chepstow, Gwent, England and has one daughter, Jessica.

The seven-book HARRY POTTER series is about a boy in England who discovers he is really a very famous wizard. The novels retell Harry Potter's adventures of conquering courses on magic while battling evil forces at the Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry. Rowling was asked by her publishers to use her initials on the book cover to appeal to more young male readers as well as female readers. J.K. Rowling’s “Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone” was published by Bloomsbury Children's Books in June 1997. It won the Nestlé Smarties Book Prize Gold Medal 9-11 years, the Young Telegraph Paperback of the Year, the FCBG Children's Book Award -overall winner, the Birmingham Cable Children's Book Award, the British Book Awards' Children's Book of the Year and the Sheffield Children's Book Award. In 1999, the second novel in the series, “Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets” won the Nestlé Smarties Book Prize 9-11 years, the Sheffield Children's Book Award, the Scottish Arts Council Children's Book Award and the British Book Awards' Children's Book of the Year, the Whitbread Children's Book of the Year Award, the FCBG Children's Book Award and the Guardian Fiction Prize. “Harry Potter And The Sorcerer's Stone” is the title of the third book in the series.

The release of the fourth book in the seven-book HARRY POTTER series was in July of 2000. So many children waited for this release that advance copy orders hit all time records. Many of those orders were placed through internet shopping sites. Prior to the release, Rowling declined any and all interviews. When asked why, she stated that she didn’t want the media to spoil the plot of the new book. She wanted children to be able to find out the storyline for themselves.

J.K. Rowling received an honorary doctorate in the spring of 2000 at St. Andrews, Scotland for helping millions of children discover the joy of reading. She was also named an Officer of the Order of British Empire in early 2000. Rowling remains constantly surprised and pleased at the popularity of her writing. She is thrilled to be able to interest so many children in the joys of reading. Her refreshing style and intriguing plots are gaining more and more momentum among young readers.

James Knox Polk

James Knox Polk Biography


James Knox Polk was the eleventh president of the United States. His presidential term was involved in making oregon and washington a part of the united states. He was also involved in declaring the mexican war.
In the campaign of 1844, the Whig party had Henry Clay as their candidate and the Democrats had James Knox Polk. The key issues of this campaign were western expansion and the spread of slavery.

Polk favored the annexation of Texas, Clay opposed. The southerners felt that Clay wanted to stop the spread of slavery, so Clay lost to Polk. Thus making James Knox Polk the eleventh President of the United States.

James Knox Polk was born in Mecklenburg County, North Carolina on November 2, 1845. His Vice-President was George Dallas. Polk only served one term as President.

After the election, and Polk became President he focused his political program on the nations destiny to rule the North American continent. The belief was that it was inevitable that the United States government would control North America. Polk believed that the United States was on a devine mission and that one day the nation would create an empire for liberty, from New York all the way to California.

Because the annexation of Texas was completed during Tyler’s last day of office, Polk turned his attention to the Oregon territory. Both the United States and Great Britain, had longtime claims to the Oregon Territory. Polk at first refused to negotiate with the British, he then soon realized he had no choice. As a result a new boundary was set at the forty-ninth parallel, giving the United States what is now Oregon and Washington.

After the settling of the dispute in the west, Polk turned his attention to the Mexican territory of southwest California. The Mexicans wanted no part of giving up these territories, so Polk asked for a declaration of war from Congress, it was granted. The Mexican War became the central political event of the Polk presidency.

During the 1844 campaign, Polk had promised if elected, he would serve only one term as president. He was a very popular president and with no doubt would have won the election of 1848. But, Polk was a man of his word and retired in 1849.

Judas Iscariot

Judas Iscariot


Judas Iscariot has traditionally be viewed as the betrayer of Christ. But some now believe that Judas was only fulfilling God's plan, and was a true martyr. Here are both sides of the argument.
In the late 1960s, two young high school students wrote a musical that would soon ignite a serious theological debate on one of the most hated figures in Christianity, Judas Iscariot. The rock opera written by Andrew Lloyd-Webber and Tim Rice, entitled "Jesus Christ Superstar", used the character of Judas as both narrator and antagonist to a Jesus Christ who had begun to believe the hysteria surrounding him. Judas is portrayed as sympathetic to the plight of Jesus, but ultimately disillusioned by the celebrity atmosphere surrounding him. His betrayal is seen as one essential step in the ultimate sacrifice of the Messiah, and he appears to receive forgiveness from God following his tragic suicide at Aceldama, the field of blood. The implication is that Judas had no choice but to betray Christ, which set in motion the events that had to take place before God's son could be sacrificed and resurrected. Without his seemingly selfish and despicable act, the rest of the Scriptures may not have been fulfilled.

But this revisionist view of Judas is contrary to the tradional role of Judas Iscariot as the ultimate betrayer of the Messiah. Many believe that Judas Iscariot became convinced that Jesus would be the leader of a politically motivated uprising against the oppressive Roman occupation. As a Zealot, Judas was more than willing to fight for his people's freedom, but he also knew that it would take a leader with Jesus' charisma and skills to sell revolution to the people. When Jesus refused to take direct action against Rome, Judas felt betrayed himself. When the Sanhedrin approached Judas with the idea of exposing Jesus, he saw an opportunity to exact some revenge for Jesus' perceived lack of resolve concerning the Romans. It was only after Jesus fell into the hands of the hated Romans that he felt remorse, and his suicide was a final and desperate act of a traitor. So which viewpoint is the correct one? No one can really say with certainty. But let us examine the recorded acts of Judas from both viewpoints, in order to reach a better understanding of this tragic figure in Biblical history.

The choice of disciples is a very interesting study in group dynamics. The majority of disciples worked as fishermen, but there was also a middle-class tax collector and an upper-class physician. Some disciples were unmovable believers in the divinity of Jesus while others were pragmatists or outright skeptics. Some wanted the Messiah to be a political and military leader while others wanted an enlightened Rabbinical teacher. So there was at least one disciple that appealed to whatever crowd that was faced. If this selection process was divinely inspired, then the inclusion of the Zealot Judas Iscariot was no mistake in judgment. He had a specific purpose, one that even Jesus may not have been fully aware of in the beginning of His ministry. Judas was destined to become one of only a dozen men who would be privy to all of Jesus' teachings and activities on Earth. Thus, such a man would have to be following the will of God, even if he wasn't aware of his calling.

But then again, the calling of the Twelve Apostles may have been left to Jesus' human intuition. He was led to the men who would form his tightest inner circle based on his impressions of their human hearts. Many of the chosen disciples were working class, much like Jesus was as a young man.

Jesus may have seen a quality in Judas that expressed His own desire to see the Jewish people free from Roman oppression. Judas' unbridled passion and dedication to the Zealot cause probably appealed to Jesus' activist side. This did not necessarily translate into undying loyalty, as Jesus and the other disciples would discover too late.

As the ministry continued to grow, the actions of Judas as an Apostle do not show a man who contemplated a betrayal of his teacher and friend. The scriptures show Judas to be a pragmatist, genuinely concerned with the expenditures of a small ministry. He was keenly aware of how certain events played to a public audience, and was quick to rebuke Jesus for any behavior that appeared hypocritical or could have been misconstrued. When Jesus reminded Judas that the poor will always be here, but His time is limited, Judas appears to accept the explanation with no rebuttals. This is not the behavior of a resentful and disillusioned man.


But one could also view Judas' acts as the warning signs of a disgruntled follower. He has been trying to pin down a definitive plan from the Messiah concerning the overthrow of Roman oppression. Meanwhile, the man he has come to admire is preoccupied with questionable women and the trappings of a successful ministry. When Judas tries to complain about the excess, he is soundly rebuked. One could easily see where Judas' hot temper might have overwhelmed him, and betrayal of a man who has already betrayed his trust is very conceivable indeed.

Those who believe that Judas' betrayal was pre-ordained point to his actions immediately following the exposure of Jesus. Instead of using his sudden wealth to better his lot in life or finance his own political goals, Judas is immediately wracked with guilt. Jesus already foresaw his betrayal, and encouraged him to move swiftly. This clairvoyance must have been extremely debilitating for Judas. Even before Judas could formulate an acceptable post-betrayal plan, Jesus already knew the actions he was contemplating. It was as if Jesus was giving him absolution for such a despicable act of betrayal- forgiveness he would have wanted desperately. Without his 'betrayal', the Messiah could not have fulfilled the Scripture's foretelling of a trial and rejection by His people. Judas was instrumental in bringing about the people's ultimate salvation from Rome, only he did not comprehend the enormity of his actions at the time. The angry return of the money only solidified his guilt, and his decision to commit suicide was a last, desperate human effort to allay his shame. By providing the mechanism by which the Resurrection could be fulfilled, Judas became the first true martyr for the church.

For those who feel that Judas was inspired by evil, these same events can be seen as even more proof of Judas' unholy intentions. He willingly accepted 30 pieces of silver to betray someone he knew to be the Messiah. This amount of money would not have insured his safety following the betrayal, nor would it have provided him with a lifestyle free from guilt. His motivation was clearly not financial- it was political. Jesus Christ was proposing that the Jews view Roman occupation as a temporary evil, one that can be survived with a more charitable mindset. He never espoused a violent uprising- a philosophy clearly not shared by the Zealots. What good would a non-violent Messiah be to the Jewish movement? Judas could not accept yet another spiritual bruising from an increasingly distant leader. If the Sanhedrin wanted to expose Jesus as a fraud, he would be more than willing to provide the body.
It was only when the Romans gained control of Jesus that Judas had a loss of resolve. His angry scene with the Sanhedrin shows a man feeling betrayed on all sides. The return of the silver pieces was meant to be a slight against the Sanhedrin. In essence, the money was cursed and Judas did not want it in the first place. Angered by the betrayal of the Sanhedrin, Judas spent the next few days contemplating his future. Following the crucifixion death of Jesus, he felt such incredible guilt that suicide was the only solution. The Bible records that Judas was troubled with a dark (evil?) spirit right up until his tragic death.

The debate over the true nature and purpose of Judas Iscariot continues to this day. While both sides present compelling arguments, the true nature of the debate is whether or now we should view Judas Iscariot as a misguided betrayer of Jesus Christ or as a preordained gear in the mechanism that would ultimately free the world through the sacrifice of Jesus Christ. Perhaps we should accept the fact that many fallible human beings all came together in imperfect ways to create what many believe to be the most perfect gift mankind has ever received.